Revonsuo A. By comparing the program with the peripheral information, that tells it how the behavior is evolving, the cerebellum produces corrections, so that the execution can match the program. Desynchronized sleep has been identified in many mammals and birds (16) but below the birds only in crocodiles brief periods of an equivalent phase (eye movements, low voltage electro-oscillograms and cervical hypotonia) seem to occur (17). Silent functional magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates focal activation in rapid eye movement sleep. The discovery of REM sleep kickstarted a flurry of scientific research into the mechanisms of the sleeping brain. Studi Psicologici e Clinici di un Alienista. This is for sure the most enigmatic issue about dreaming. However, we still do not know why most motor units are inactivated while a few ones are mobilized, causing real but incoherent and non-efficient movements. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Webanalyzing dreams. J Neurosci 1991;11:2804-11. Our experience with eye movements in rats (30-32) and cats (33) shows, however, that eye movements are sometimes asymmetric but in other occasions they tend to be of the scanning kind. Physiol., Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New york 1972:1-165. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1955:673-690. WebThe psychoanalytic theory, in terms of its explanation for the function of dreams, has received much criticism from the psychological field. J Neurophysiol 1954;17:532-57. In humans it has been shown that not only EEG desynchronization but also increase in vegetative functions, such as heart rate and ventilation (27), accompany mental activity. Hobson JA, Pace-Schott EF, Stickgold R. Dreaming and the brain: toward a cognitive neuroscience of conscious states. 2021 Aug 30;24(2):543. doi: 10.4081/ripppo.2021.543. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. Baldissera F, Broggi G. An analysis of potential changes in the spinal cord during desynchronized sleep. Since evoking visual reminiscences during wakefulness and the building up of dreams with visual information are dependent on the visual cortex, both facts can be correlated. 79. Muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep is, as stated above, generated in the alpha-coeruleus nucleus and involves both direct and indirect pathways that inhibit the motoneurons. (eds.) Matsuyama K, Kobaysahi y, Takakusaki M, Mosi S, Kimuta H. Termination mode and branching patterns of reticuloreticular and reticulospinal fibers of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis in the cat: an anterograde PHA-L tracing study. Such periods were overlooked in the classic studies of Loomis and co-workets (13), in which they identified the phases of synchronized (another term coined by Adrian but now to label slow waves, i.e., potentials with a low frequency and a high voltage) sleep. Theories on the function of REM sleep and dreaming, with which it has a contingent relationship, remain diverse. The case against memory consolidation in REM sleep. 107. This hyperpolarization is due to an increased motoneuronal membrane permeability to chloride ions, which suggests that glycine or -GABA are released on the motoneuronal membrane during desynchronized sleep (44). Thermoregulation is impaired in desynchronized sleep (64) but it is unlikely that body temperature changes due to dreaming activity, inasmuch as variations of temperature are slow while dreaming is a fast pace phenomenon. Jouvet believes that dreaming activity plays a key role during the earliest years of life and thus may be involved in continuously programming some of the most subtle reactions of our consciousness during wakefulness. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1996;42:123-7. 40. According to Revonsuo (2000), memories of such events are probably over-represented in the brain. 103. Baldissera F, Cesa-Bianchi MG, Mancia M. Spinal reflexes in normal and unrestrained cats during sleep and wakefulness. Braz J Med Biol Res 1990;23:617-20. In addition, blood flow velocity in the middle cerebral artery decreases during synchronized sleep whereas in desynchronized sleep it is similar to that occurring in waking (133). Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C, Sameshima K, yamashita R. Theta waves and behavioral manifestations of alertness and dreaming activity in the rat. Now, the recent advent of deep neural networks (DNNs) has finally provided the novel conceptual framework within which to understand Pontine cholinergic neurons show fos-like immunoreactivity associated with cholinergically induced REM sleep. If we dream we are walking, the electromyographic recordings from muscles involved in such behavior show quite clearly that they are not able to produce normal movements. 99. The motor components are usually weak and poorly expressed movements during a dream, mainly if it occurs during desynchronized sleep; when a dream takes place during synchronized sleep phase I, near wakefulness, not only movements are more faithful to the dream content but also the latter is much more logic. 65. Apparently, the main cause of such a reduction of blood pressure and heart rate is the active inhibition of the baroreceptor reflexes during this phase of sleep. J Ment Nerv Dis 1966;141:623-50. As pointed Simes CA, Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C. Correlation between concomitant theta waves in nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and in the hippocampus, thalamus and neocortex during dreaming in rats. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted WebThe leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1959;153:1024-8. Later, school and work dominate the mental field and the main features in dreams also change accordingly, supporting this hypothesis. Sleep research: pictures from the early years. WebExplanation of Physiological function theory This may be true, but it does not explain why we experience meaningful dreams Critical considerations of Physiological function In: The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming, Antrobus, J. S. & Bertini, M. The motoneuron inhibition, responsible for the sleep atonia and abolition of movements, is not complete in infancy (figure 5). Science 1987;238:797-9. De Sanctis S. I Sogni e il Sonno. 8. 86. Timo-Iaria C, yamashita R, Hoshino K, Sousa-Melo A. According to this author, in children at the age of two, when the hippocampus, which is still in the process of development at birth, becomes functional, REM sleep takes on its interpretive memory function (134). No wonder that dream recall is impaired in brain-damaged patients (97). Nature 1996;383:163-6. Some presently available explanations seem science fiction, rather than true science. Problems with Physiological function Theory This does According to this impossible hypothesis, during desynchronized sleep, in which the brain is rather isolated from its normal input/output, a non-specific endogenous activation in the brain stem is probably responsible for the reverse learning. 101. Head jerky movements may reflect vestibular dreams. Table 1 shows the results of some of such studies, including our data concerning nearly 2,000 dreaming episodes recorded from rats. (eds. Brain activity during this time keeps us By visually examining the amplitude of theta waves in these examples it seems they vary at random but when the instant variation of voltage is plotted as a function of time, a regular variation appears during the phasic movements (figure 10). The American psychologist Mary Whiton Calkins published in 1893 an important, although entirely unkwnown, article under the title Statistics of Dreams, wherein she introduced the technique of arousing people when they moved parts of the body during sleep and asking them to report their dreams (4,7). Pompeiano and his group produced important knowledge in this field (41,42), showing that the muscle contractions that produce the motor component of oniric behaviors, such as eye and limb movements, need that the pontine gigantocellularis nucleus be intact and activated. A theory that has many There are many hypotheses to account for the existence of dreams but it is still a matter of debate why and what for we dream. Oswald I. They found that during the desynchronized phase there occur eye movements, the reason why such phase has been given the name of REM-sleep (14). WebThis theory also implies that dreams are not independently functional but rather a coproduct of the sleeping brain, reflecting the dreamers physiological and psychological The meaning of dreams. Wehr TA. In humans the electro-oscillograms during desynchronized sleep are expressed as overall cortical desynchronization, whence the adequacy of the name created by Moruzzi, desynchronized sleep. The latter are absolutely necessary for any neural activity to occur, inasmuch as the oxygen required by the nervous system amounts to 20% of the total oxygen consumption (near ten times as much as the average of the body as a whole). Confrontations Psychiatriques 1986;27:153-81. Karger, Basel, 1997:65-76. J Cerebr Blood Flow Metab 1991;11:502-7. Gottesmann C. Theta rhythm: the brain stem involvement. Exploring the neural correlates of dream phenomenology and altered states of consciousness during sleep. 84. J Neurosci 1995;15:3500-8. Arch Ital Biol 1965;103:369-96. Important dream theories are Freud's interpretation of dreams, Brain Res 1979;176:233-54. Control of ventilation during sleep. 41. Exp Brain Res 1989;74:11-23. This theory is supported by the fact that the body has decreased metabolism by up to 10% during sleep. During the medieval era in Spain, by then the very cultural center of Europe (probably of the entire world), and mainly in the 13th century, some Muslim Arabs and Jewish rabis, centered in Cordoba rediscovered the Greek literature, that had been concealed by early Christianism, and translated all that important work into Latin, Arabic and Hebraic. Science 1953;118:273-4. The other is that dreams are caused by forebrain activation by dopamine. PMC It decreases, apparently exponentially as a function of age, from 60% at 4 to 30% at 7-8 and to 10% at 18 years of age (112). The correlation between dream content and the oniric movements was first studied by Aristotle, who identified lip, eye and limb movements and correctly related them to what was being dreamed of. Stimulus response theory of dream: The stimulus response theory which existed prior to Freud is based upon the associationistic stimulus response view. This theory stresses the relationship between brain changes during sleep and changes in perceptual efficiency. Some disturbing stimuli force activity into one portion of the cerebral cortex. ", "As to the oviparous creatures, it is obvious that they sleep but it is impossible to state that they dream. Jouvet M, Michel F, Courjon J. Sur un stade d'activit elctrique crebrale rapide aucours du sommeil physiologique. Sleep patterns during rearing under different environmental conditions in juveline rats. Web5 Theories on dreaming . Ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) burst neurons: correlative evidence for neuronal generators of PGO waves. Later, the Roman writer Lucretius, the first popularizer of science, in his book De Rerum Natura (1978) credited these Greek philosophers for the discovery of the characteristics of sleep and dreams (2). 64. In humans a dream may be reported and its content can thus be analyzed. The lag between tachycardia and eye movements may be related to all the neural processes that are involved in the phases preceding adn succeeding the oniric behavior, including the very identification of the dream content. According to Hobson, Pace-Schotter & Stickgold (2000), since image studies show activation of "limbic" and "paralimbic" structures of the forebrain during desynchronized sleep, as compared to wakefulness (120,126-128), emotion may be a primary shaper of dream plots, rather than playing a secondary role plot instigation. During wakefulness such periods in rats are concomitant with short but complete immobilization, which is well known to occur when a high degree of attention is being directed to some external object. Nature 1989;304:111-4. If the animal is trying to identify the source of an odor that is located at a large distance, snout movements are expected to span wide angles at low frequencies, whereas when the source is near such movements are expected to span narrow angles, at high frequencies, just as during wakefulness. Erlbaum 1992. and transmitted securely. In the past, most civilizations boasted having wise people who could tell the meaning of dreams if conveniently paid for that, a fancy profession that still has its counterparts in modern nations. It seems that not only humans but also dogs, cows, sheep and goats and the entire family of four-legged viviparous animals do dream. 45. 92. It is likely that even strong stimuli may be ineffective in producing an arousal during sleep if they are trivial, whereas light stimulation containing relevant information may be highly efficient. John Wiley and Sons, New york 1982. Dreams and Nightmares in Patients With Obstructive Sleep Apnea: A Review. Psychosomat Med 1975;37:147-59. Rapid increase of an immediate early gene messenger RNA in hippocampal neurons by synaptic NMDA receptor activation. Therefore, any neural event, be it running or just thinking, or dreaming, requires a large amount of oxygen, which is carried to the nervous system by the blood through powerful hemodynamic adjustments, such as increase in blood pressure, heart rate and central blood flow (21,25,26). Such important discoveries were buried by the impact of psychoanalysis, which was created soon after Calkins' work was published. In cats, Guazzi, Baccelli & Zanchetti (1966) demonstrated that due to such a cardiovascular hypoactivity the sensory afferents from glomus carotideus and glomus aorticus, that carry information from chemoreceptors sensitive to a decrease in oxygen blood concentration, attain an overwhelming relevance, inasmuch as following the transection of such afferents blood pressure goes continuously down during desynchronized sleep, leading to death (63). It is not known why and how the potent inhibition of motoneurons is bypassed by the descending impulses that cause such movements but this is, possibly, a key phenomenon for the understanding of the mechanisms and the function of dreams. Eine Methodik der Ableitung localisierter Potentialschwankungen aus subcortikalen Hirngebieten. Brooks DC, Bizzi E. Brain stem electrical activity during deep sleep. There are two kinds of vegetative components: 1. Frequency clearly increases and becomes regular, as compared with the trend before oniric activity. Geschichte der Physiologie. eCollection 2017. Candia et al. 12. This causes the amygdala and hippocampus to become active, which help to influence the brain systems that control sensations, memories, and emotions. Dreaming 1996;6:121-30. 69. Assoc Psychophysiol Stud Sleep. It seems that a systematic investigation regarding the threshold to different types of stimulation is still lacking and should be performed, in order to establish which kinds of stimulation and effective thresholds are able to awaken humans and non-humans during sleep. In Greece dreams were called oneiros, a word that originated the adjective oniric but that meant not exactly what was dreamed about neither the dreaming process, which was not rated as something important, but the phantasmata, i.e. When a dream has a verbal content the tongue, lips and other facial muscles do contract and if the dream is deambulatory several lower limb muscles do contract, expressing the behavior triggered by the imagined walking. Mirmiran M, Van den Dungen H, Uylings HBM. eCollection 2019. Braz J Med Biol Res 1996;29:1645-50. In: Klemm, W. R. & Vertes, R. P. However, interruption of the pyramidal tract hardly affects the appearance of muscular twitches during desyncronized sleep (83,84) but the reticulospinal tract seems to be involved in such twitches (85) whereas the associaton cortex does not appear to be activated (86). Jouvet (12,119), one of the most important researchers on sleep, suggests that dreaming is "a guardian and programmer of the hereditary part of our personality" and as such it plays a role in our general behavior. J Abnorm Psychol 1982;91:433-6. Lucrce. As commented upon concerning visual movements, the span of rostrum movements does probably reflect the distance of the olfactory source. Careers. In decerebrate cats eye movements do occur and are integrated below the midbrain (67,95). 10. Shiromani PJ, Winston S, McCarley RW. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:1008-9. 32. A nerve growth factor-induced gene encodes a possible trancriptional regulatory factor. Such movements may take the sleeper to fall off the bed. Miyauchi et al. Brain Res 1990;517:224-8. Changes in neuronal activity in association cortex of the cat in relation to sleep and wakefulness. WebDream theories developed by Freud suggest that dreams are psychological, revealing hidden urges, for example. Inasmuch as dreaming seems to occur in most birds and mammals, it is unlikely that it has no function in the animal organism. Hernndez-Pen R. A neurophysiologic model of dreams and hallucinations. Carcione A, Santonastaso M, Sferruzza F, Riccardi I. Res Psychother. The gamma-alpha loop has been shown to play no role in producing the movements that characterize dreaming. 73. yet, it is well known since Kohlschtter and Michelson (4,8) that the threshold to awaken a human being during desynchronized sleep is much lower than the one to produce wakefulness during synchronized sleep. The previous station of these nuclei is the interpeduncular nucleus, whose stimulation with carbachol caused sleep within nearly 30 seconds. A related point of view was put forward by Krueger & Obal (1993), who proposed that, on the basis of use-dependent synaptic stabilization, the neuronal assembly not activated during wakefulness will be activated during sleep, to prevent it from atrophy (117). 11. 94. Electrophysiological manifestations of wakefulness and desynchronized sleep in the rat. Wallace CS, Withers GS, George VM, Clayton OF, Greenough WT. Phenomenal dream content, however, is not as disorganized as such views imply. Considering that desynchronization is predominant all over the cortex in humans and in the frontal cortex of both cats and rats, we consider it to be a phylogenetically more recent functional acquisition. However, considering the high prevalence of dreams during this phase it should be more appropriately named oniric phase of sleep. The vegetative components, that are phasic increases of heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupillary diameter, and most probably metabolic adjustments as well, are expressed more consistently during a dream, as they are during attentive wakefulness. & Bertini, M. By measuring the voltage of the potential generated by the rotation it is possible to know if the object is near or far. Raven Press, New york 1981:405-429. Despite such facts, some physiologists do not agree that heart rate and blood pressure decrease during desynchronized sleep. In fact, it does frequently occur when movements are expressed as high frequency potentials. Plenum Press, 1990. Timo-Iaria C, Negro N, Schmidek WR, Rocha TL, Hoshino K. Phases and states of sleep in the rat. Eye movements in born-blinds are probably due to a quite different reason. Although related to the information fluxogram displayed in figure 2 of the present review, Hernandez-Pon's process involves the function of participating in "adaptive waking behavior", which does not seem to have a real meaning (136). Neuroscience 1997;78:13-38. 24. Similarly, in rats any kind of sensory stimulation does immediately mobilize sniffing and vibrissal scanning movements. The heart rate and breathing quickens, and blood pressure rises. Jouvet M. Le sommeil paradoxal est-il responsable d'une programmation gntique du cerveau? Magoun HW, Rhines R. An inhibitory mechanism in the bulbar reticular formation. Activity of the red nucleus during deep, desynchronized sleep in the unrestrained cat. Clin Chest Med 1985;6:563-75. Arch Psychiat Nervenkrankh 1938;109:1-17. Longitudinal studies. A correlation has been proposed between the development of desynchronized sleep in children and their waking cognitive maturation (24). The reason why when we dream we are walking we do not get out of the bed and really walk, or when we dream we are talking to someone we do not really talk, is that neural circuits located in the neighborhood of locus coeruleus, in the pontine tegmentum, inhibit the motoneurons and do not allow the real movements to occur. Jung R, Kornmller AE. Bookshelf Our data with rats are quite consistent as to the variation of blood pressure and heart rate during oniric activity. Life Science 1989;45:1349-56. Many hypotheses have been advanced but so far they do not explain why and what for we do dream. 96. Brain Res 1985;327:362-6. Reticulospinal and reticulobulbar tracts are involved in conveying to the motoneurons the impulses that cause oniric movements. From a very weak inhibition in early infancy, it goes up rapidly up to 15 years of age, evolving asymptotically from this period on. Vertes RP. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1992;2:759-63. 93. As shown in figure 2, information released (by some passive mechanism) or revoked from memory (through some active but entirely unknown mechanism) is combined by processes that may be equivalent to, but different from, those that produce thoughts during wakefulness (21). 72. Ann Rev Psychol 1990;41:557-884. Madsen PC, Holm S, Vorstup S, Friberg L, Lassen NA, Wildschiotz LF. Hodes R, Dement WC. 111. In: Baust, W. (1997) found during desynchronized sleep a consistent activation of the pons, midbrain, anterior hypothalamus, caudate and medial prefrontal, caudal orbital, anterior cingulate, parahippocampal and inferior temporal cortices (126). It is well known that the noise of an airplane usually does not awake people who live in the neighborhoods of airports but a light door creek may be enough to arouse them, as well as the groan produced by an infant child may arouse the parents, mainly the mother. 1996 Sep 12;383(6596):163-6. doi: 10.1038/383163a0. Shiromani PJ, Malik M, Winston S, McCarley RW. 95. Reactivation of hippocampal ensemble memories during sleep. Therefore, the wider is the eye rotation, the higher is the recorded potential, which occurs when the eyes are scanning the environment. During wakefulness theta waves consistently exhibit a lesser voltage and are less regular than during desynchronized sleep, what makes it easy to tell wakefulness from desynchronized sleep from the shear inspection of the electro-oscillograms (21,30,31,125). Brain 1997;120:1173-97. As a matter of fact, manifestations of dreaming have been identified in many species, including chickens, chimpanzees, cats, rats and in some birds. 2009 Nov;10(11):803-13. doi: 10.1038/nrn2716. Dreaming has been a subject of cogitation since remote Antiquity. The function of dreaming Theories on the function of REM sleep and dreaming, with which it has a contingent relationship, remain diverse. They include facilitation of memory storage, reverse learning, anatomical and functional brain maturation, catecholamine restoration, psychoanalytical (wish fulfilment or otherwise). It i These authors argue that despite the marked suppression of desynchronized sleep provoked by tricyclic antidepressants neither selective serotonine reuptake inhibitors and mono-amino-oxydase nor learning and memory are disrupted. "Dreams are not ghosts (phantasmata), since they are closely related to the events of the previous day".
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